Monthly Archives: February 2016

Analysis

Continuity under the integral sign

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We consider here a measure space \((\Omega, \mathcal A, \mu)\) and \(T \subset \mathbb R\) a topological subspace. For a map \(f : T \times \Omega \to \mathbb R\) such that for all \(t \in T\) the map \[
\begin{array}{l|rcl}
f(t, \cdot) : & \Omega & \longrightarrow & \mathbb R \\
& \omega & \longmapsto & f(t,\omega) \end{array}
\] is integrable, one can define the function \[
\begin{array}{l|rcl}
F : & T & \longrightarrow & \mathbb R \\
& t & \longmapsto & \int_\Omega f(t,\omega) \ d\mu(\omega) \end{array}
\]

Following theorem is well known (and can be proven using dominated convergence theorem):

THEOREM for an adherent point \(x \in T\), if

  • \(\forall \omega \in \Omega \lim\limits_{t \to x} f(t,\omega) = \varphi(\omega)\)
  • There exists a map \(g : \Omega \to \mathbb R\) such that \(\forall t \in T, \, \forall \omega \in \Omega, \ \vert f(t,\omega) \vert \le g(\omega)\)

then \(\varphi\) is integrable and \[
\lim\limits_{t \to x} F(t) = \int_\Omega \varphi(\omega) \ d\mu(\omega)\]
In other words, one can switch \(\lim\) and \(\int\) signs.

We provide here a counterexample showing that the conclusion of the theorem might not hold if \(f\) is not bounded by a function \(g\) as supposed in the premises of the theorem. Continue reading Continuity under the integral sign →

Analysis

A trigonometric series that is not a Fourier series (Lebesgue-integration)

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We already provided here an example of a trigonometric series that is not the Fourier series of a Riemann-integrable function (namely the function \(\displaystyle x \mapsto \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\sin nx}{\sqrt n}\)).

Applying an Abel-transformation (like mentioned in the link above), one can see that the function \[f(x)=\sum_{n=2}^\infty \frac{\sin nx}{\ln n}\] is everywhere convergent. We now prove that \(f\) cannot be the Fourier series of a Lebesgue-integrable function. The proof is based on the fact that for a \(2 \pi\)-periodic function \(g\), Lebesgue-integrable on \([0,2 \pi]\), the sum \[\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{c_n-c_{-n}}{n}\] is convergent where \((c_n)_{n \in \mathbb Z}\) are the complex Fourier coefficients of \(g\): \[c_n = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_0^{2 \pi} g(t)e^{-ikt} \ dt.\] As the series \(\displaystyle \sum_{n=2}^\infty \frac{1}{n \ln n}\) is divergent, we will be able to conclude that the sequence defined by \[\gamma_0=\gamma_1=\gamma_{-1} = 0, \, \gamma_n=- \gamma_{-n} = \frac{1}{\ln n} \ (n \ge 2)\] cannot be the Fourier coefficients of a Lebesgue-integrable function, hence that \(f\) is not the Fourier series of any Lebesgue-integrable function. Continue reading A trigonometric series that is not a Fourier series (Lebesgue-integration) →

Algebra

Intersection and sum of vector subspaces

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Let’s consider a vector space \(E\) over a field \(K\). We’ll look at relations involving basic set operations and sum of subspaces. We denote by \(F, G\) and \(H\) subspaces of \(E\).

The relation \((F \cap G) + H \subset (F+H) \cap (G + H)\)

This relation holds. The proof is quite simple. For any \(x \in (F \cap G) + H\) there exists \(y \in F \cap G\) and \(h \in H\) such that \(x=y+h\). As \(y \in F\), \(x \in F+H\) and by a similar argument \(x \in F+H\). Therefore \(x \in (F+H) \cap (G + H)\).

Is the inclusion \((F \cap G) + H \subset (F+H) \cap (G + H)\) always an equality? The answer is negative. Take for the space \(E\) the real 3 dimensional space \(\mathbb R^3\). And for the subspaces:

  • \(H\) the plane of equation \(z=0\),
  • \(F\) the line of equations \(y = 0, \, x=z\),
  • \(G\) the line of equations \(y = 0, \, x=-z\),

Continue reading Intersection and sum of vector subspaces →

Analysis

Playing with liminf and limsup

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Let’s consider real sequences \((a_n)_{n \in \mathbb N}\) and \((b_n)_{n \in \mathbb N}\). We look at inequalities involving limit superior and limit inferior of those sequences. Following inequalities hold:
\[\begin{aligned}
& \liminf a_n + \liminf b_n \le \liminf (a_n+b_n)\\
& \liminf (a_n+b_n) \le \liminf a_n + \limsup b_n\\
& \liminf a_n + \limsup b_n \le \limsup (a_n+b_n)\\
& \limsup (a_n+b_n) \le \limsup a_n + \limsup b_n
\end{aligned}\] Let’s prove for example the first inequality, reminding first that \[
\liminf\limits_{n \to \infty} a_n = \lim\limits_{n \to \infty} \left(\inf\limits_{m \ge n} a_m \right).\] For \(n \in \mathbb N\), we have for all \(m \ge n\) \[\inf\limits_{k \ge n} a_k + \inf\limits_{k \ge n} b_k \le a_m + b_m\] hence \[\inf\limits_{k \ge n} a_k + \inf\limits_{k \ge n} b_k \le \inf\limits_{k \ge n} \left(a_k+b_k \right)\] As the sequences \((\inf\limits_{k \ge n} a_k)_{n \in \mathbb N}\) and \((\inf\limits_{k \ge n} b_k)_{n \in \mathbb N}\) are non-increasing we get for all \(n \in \mathbb N\), \[\liminf a_n + \liminf b_n \le \inf\limits_{m \ge n} \left(a_m+b_m \right)\] which leads finally to the desired inequality \[\liminf a_n + \liminf b_n \le \liminf (a_n+b_n).\] Continue reading Playing with liminf and limsup →